Qar method

CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHOD

3.1 Research Design
3.2 Research Variable
3.2.1 Conceptual Definition
3.2.1.1 Reading Comprehension
Reading comprehension is a process defined a symbol from text. Reading comprehension of student is caused two factors, internal and external factor. So, the factor is very important on reading comprehension.

3.2.1.2 QAR Strategy
QAR strategy is very easy to use and make student understanding about text because the strategy can discover students’ knowledge before reading. So, before reading activity of student is looking for information of the text.

3.2.1.3. SQ3R Strategy
SQ3R stage readings conducted a survey to get ideas what will the general public. Then by asking questions on ourselves that the answer is contained in the reading is expected to make it easier for readers to understand the reading. Then by trying to speak with own words the main points of importance, the reader will master and remember it longer. Thus, this strategy allows students to learn systematically with the help of the working steps proper and efficient.

CHAPTER I
Content Base Instruction
1. Background theory
Content based instruction (CBI) refers to an approach to second language teaching is organized around the content or information that students will acquire, rather than around a linguistic or other type of syllabus.
2. Approach The Theory Of Language
Content-based instruction is grounded of the following two central principles:
1) People learn a second language more successfully when they use the language as a means of acquiring information, rather than as an end in itself.
2) Content-based instruction better reflects learners’ needs for learning a second language.
3. Theory of Language
a) Language is text and discourse based CBI address the role of language as a vehicle for learning content. This implies the centrality of linguistic entities longer than single sentence, because the focus of teaching is how meaning and information are communicate and constructive through texts and discourse.
b) Language use draws on integrated skills CBI views language use as involving several skills together. In a content based class, students are often involved in activities that link the skills, because this is how the skills are generally involved in the real word.
4. Theory of Learning
People learn a second language more successfully when they use the language as a means of acquiring information, rather than as an end in itself. Regardless of CBI model that is used, they all “share the fact that content is the point of departure or organizing of the course a feature that grows out of the common underlying assumption that successful language learning occurs when students are presented with target language material in a meaningful, contextualized from with the primary focus on acquiring information” (Brinton et al., Wesche, 1989:17).
5. Design of Learning : Objective of Method
a) Objective
In CBI language learning is typically considered incidental to the learning of content. Thus the objectives in a typical CBI course are stated as objective of the content course.
b) Objectives were:
1) To activate and develop existing English language skill ;
2) To acquire learning skills and strategies that could be applied in future language development opportunities;
3) To develop general academic skills applicable to university studies in all subject areas.
4) To broaden students understanding of English speaking people.

5. Syllabus
In most CBI courses, the syllabus is derived from the content area, and these obviously vary widely in detail and format. It is typically only CBI following the theme based model in which content and instructional sequence is chosen according to language learning goals.
6. Types of Learning and Teaching Activities
There are a number of descriptions of activity types in CBI. Stroller (1997) provides a list of classified according to their instructional focus. The classification categories she proposes are:
1) Language skills improvement;
2) Vocabulary building;
3) Discourse organization
4) Communicative interaction
5) Sturdy skills synthesis of content material and grammar.
7. Learner’s Roles
One goal of CBI is for autonomous so that they come to “understand their own learning process and take charge of their own learning from the very start” (Stryker and Leaver 1993:286). In addition, most CBI courses anticipate that students will support each other in collaborative modes of learning.
8. Teacher Roles
CBI Anticipates a Charge in the typical roles of language teachers. “In structures must be more than just good language teachers. They must be knowledgeable in the subject matter and able to elicit that knowledge from their students”. (Stryker and Leaver 1993:292).
At a more detailed level, teacher have to keep context and comprehensibility foremost in their planning and their presentations, they are responsible for selecting and adapting authentic materials for use in class, they become student needs analysis, and they have to create truly learner-centered classrooms. As Briton et al. (1989; 3).
9. The Role of Material
As with other elements is CBI, the materials that facilitate language learning are the materials that are used typically with the subject matter of the content course. It is recommended that a rich variety of materials types be identified and used with the central concern being the nation that the materials are like the kinds of materials used in native language instruction.
10. Procedure
Since content based instruction refers to an approach reader than a method, no specific techniques or activities are associated with it. At the level of procedure, teaching materials and activities are selected according to the extent to which they match the type of program it is. Stryker and Leaver (1997:198-199) describe a typical sequence of classroom procedures in a content-based lesson.
11. Conclusion
Content-based approaches in language teaching have been used in variety of different setting since the 1980s. From its earliest applications in ESP, EOP, and emersion programs, it is now widely used in k12 programs for ESL students, in university. Its advocates claim that it leads to more successful program outcomes than alternative language teaching approaches. Because it offers unlimited opportunities for teachers to match students’ interests and needs with interesting and meaningful content, it offers many practical LAN advantages for teachers and course designers.
a) Instructional Materials
1) Negation
Ingkaran is the negation or rejection of the existing statement. If a statement is false then its negation is true and if the question is true then its negation is false. Writing P is the negation symbol "~ P" to determine ingkaran or negation of a statement then writing added "no, not really that, or not" in front of the statement.
2) Conjunction
Two questions that are combined with the word "and" called conjunctions. Writing 'and' the conjunction is represented by: "^".
3) Disjunction
The two statements are combined with the word "or" called a disjunction. Disjunction has two different meanings, namely: i. disjunction inclusive disjunction has the meaning of true if at least one of the statements is true.



CHAPTER II
The Audio-lingual Method (ALM)
1. Background theory
The Audio-lingual method (ALM) is a method which was introduced in the united State of America (USA) in 1940s. Even though the method is considered very old, many language teachers still like it and believe that it is a powerful method.
2. Approach the theory of language
 The Structural view of language is the view behind the audio-lingual method. Particular emphasis was laid on mastering the building blocks of language and learning the rules for combining them.
 The audio-language method language learners are equipment with the knowledge and skill required for effective communication in a foreign language.
3. Theory of learning
Behaviorism, including the following principles:
Language learning is habit-formation
• mistakes are bad and should be avoided, as they make bad habits
• language skills are learned more effectively if they are presented orally first, then in written form
• analogy is a better foundation for language learning than analysis
• the meanings of words can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context
4. Design of teaching: objective method
 Objective
Here are some of the objectives of the audio-lingual method:
• accurate pronunciation and grammar
• ability to respond quickly and accurately in speech situations
• Knowledge of sufficient vocabulary to use with grammar patterns.
5. Syllabus
• Audio lingual method uses a structural syllabus
6. Types of Learning and Teaching Activities
• The Dialogues:
In teaching the target language dialogue plays an important role. Almost any language class begins with a dialogue.
• The following considerable are necessary to construct a good dialogue:
1) The dialogue should be short.
2) The dialogue should have not ore than three roles.
3) The dialogue should contain repetition of new grammar.
4) The content should be interesting for the students
5) Previous vocabulary and grammar should be included in the dialogue.
• The kinds of drills:
1) Transformation drill
2) Replacement drill
3) Response drill
4) Cued response drill
5) Rejoinder drill
6) Restatement drill
7) Completion drill
8) Expansion drill
9) Contraction drill
10) Integration drill
11) Translation drill
 Language is purposeful
Language has many purposeful, like as communication, to get information and develop psychology and philosophy. And then Based on the principle that language learning is habit formation, the method fosters dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over-learning.
10. Procedure
Here is a typical procedure in an audio-lingual course:
• Students hear a model dialogue
• Students repeat each line of the dialogue
• Certain key words or phrases may be changed in the dialogue
• Key structures from the dialogue serve as the basis for pattern drills of different kinds.
• The students practice substitutions in the pattern drills.
11. Conclusion
The Conclusion of the Audio-Lingual Method is

CHAPTER III
The Silent Way
1. Background Theory
1) Caleb Gattegno
“The Silent Way it is based on the premise that the teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom and the learner should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible.”
2) Learning hypotheses:
a. Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learned.
According Richard; Rogers (2009), Jerome Bruner distinguishes two traditions of teaching:
 Expository mode:
“The student is the listener”
 Hypothetical mode:
Views learning as a problem-solving, creative, discovering activity, in which the learner is principal actor rather than a bench-bound listener.
b. Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects.
The rods and the color-coded chart (Fidel charts), provide physical foci for student learning and also create memorable images to facilitated student recall.
c. Learning is facilitated involving the material by problem solving to be learned.
The learner’s grappling with the problem of forming an appropriate and meaningful utterance in a new language, leads the learner to realization of the language.
2. Theory of Language
 The “spirit” of the language
 “Semi-luxury vocabulary”: common expressions in the daily life
 “Luxury vocabulary”: used in communicating more specialized ideas
 “Functional vocabulary”: learners deals with the most functional and versatile words of the language that almost don’t have direct equivalents in the learner’s native tongue.
3. Theory of learning
 A successful learning involves commitment of the self to language acquisition through the use of silent awareness and then active trial.
 Silence as avoidance repetition is an aid to alertness, concentration and mental organization.
 Silent Way learners acquire “inner criteria”.
 Gattegno sees language learning through the Silent Way as a recovery of innocence – “a return to our powers and potentials.”
4. Design of teaching: Objective of the method
 General objective: to give beginning level students oral and aural facility in basic elements of the target language
 The general goal set for language learning is near-native fluency in the target language, correct pronunciation and mastery of the prosodic elements of the target language.
 Immediate objective: provide the learner with a basic practical knowledge of the grammar of the target language
5. Syllabus
 Structural syllabus: lesson planned around grammatical items and related vocabulary.
 Language items: introduced according to their grammatical complexity and their relationship to what has been taught previously.
 The imperative: is normally the first structure introduced, because of the ease with action verbs may be demonstrated using Silent Way materials.
 Numeration and prepositions of location
 Vocabulary
6. Learners Role
 Learners are expected to develop independence, autonomy and responsibility.
 Independent learners are aware that they must depend on their own resources and realize that they can use the knowledge of their own language to open up some things in a new language.
 Autonomous learners choose proper expressions in a given set of circumstances and situations.
 Responsible learners know that they have free will to choose among any set of linguistic choices, the ability to choose intelligently and carefully is said to be evidence of responsibility.
7. Teacher Role
 Teacher silence is, perhaps, the most demanding aspect of the Silent Way. Teacher silently monitors learners’ interactions.
 “Teaching” meant to present an item once, using typically nonverbal clues to get across meaning. So, he uses gestures, charts and manipulates in order to elicit and shape student responses.
 The teachers’ role is one of neutral observer, neither elated by correct performance nor discouraged by error.
 According Stevick (1980, p.56), Silent Way teacher’s tasks are:
(a) to teach
(b) to test
(c) to get out of the way
8. Roles of Instructional materials
 Sound-color chart
 Word chart
 Fidel charts (color-coded pronunciation charts)
 Pointer / Rod
9. Procedure
 A Silent Way lesson typically follows a standard format.
 The pointer is used to indicate stress, harassing, and intonation.
 After practice with the sounds of the language, sentence patterns, structure, and vocabulary are practiced.
 The sample lesson that follows illustrates a typical lesson format.








10. Conclusion
The innovations in Gattegno’s method drive primarily from the manner in which classroom activities are organized, the indirect role the teacher is required to assume in directing and monitoring learner performance, the responsibility place on learners to figure out and test their hypothesis about how the language works, and the materials used to elicit and practice language.




CHAPTER IV
Desuggestopedia
1. Background theory
Suggestopedia is the centrality of music and musical rhythm to learning. Gaston (1968) defines three functions of music in therapy: to facilitate the establishment and maintenance of personal relations to bring about increased self-esteem through increased self-satisfaction in musical performance and to use the unique potential of rhythm to energize and bring order.
2. Approach: Theory of Language and Learning
In Desuggestopedia method the teacher is the authority in the classroom and the students must trust and respect her. Based on some experiences, learning is facilitated in a cheerful environment the teacher should be recognize that learners bring certain psychological barriers with them to the learning situation ,fine art provide positive suggestions for students for homework the students are to read the dialog at night and in the morning, music and movement reinforce the linguistics material because it is desirable that students’ achieve a state of ‘infantilization’ so that they will be more open to learning, songs are useful for ‘freeing the speech muscles’ and evoking positive emotions, etc.
3. Objectives, syllabus, learning activities
The objectives of Suggestopedia are to deliver advanced conversational proficiency quickly. It bases its learning claims on student mastery of prodigious lists of vocabulary pairs and, indeed, suggests, to the students that it is appropriate that they set such goals for themselves.
4. Roles of learners, teachers, and material
 Lozanov lists several expected teacher behavior s that contribute to these presentations.
 Show absolute confidence in the method.
 Display fastidious conduct in manner and dress.
 Organize properly and strictly obser the initial stages of the teaching process-this includes choice and play of music, as well as punctuality.
 Maintain a solemn attitude toward the session.
 Give test and respond tactfully to poor paper ( if any )
 Stress global rather than analytical attitude toward material.
 Maintain a modest enthusiasm.
5. Procedure
Bancroft (1972) notes that the 4-hour language class has three distinct parts:
 The first part we might call an review section. Previously learned material is used as the basis for discussion by the teacher and twelve students in the class.
 In the second part of the class new material is presented and discussed.
 The third part-the séance or concert session- is the one by which suggestopedia is best known. Since this constitutes the heart of the method, we will quote lozanov as to hoe this session proceeds.

6. Conclusion
Based on the description in the discussion, several conclusions can then be formulated as follows:
 English is a second language (L2) or the first foreign language taught in formal schools in Indonesia. Referred to as a second language (L2) is a language that is not obtained from a person reasonably small. Learning a second language is usually done formally.
 In learning a second language, known as one method / approach to teaching modern languages that are humanistic, that is suggestopedia approach.
 Suggestopedia approaches including humanistic approaches, because suggestopedia in its application prioritizes the role of students, oriented to the needs of students, and the existence of the balance of power in the classroom, the degree of freedom, autonomy, responsibility, and creativity that are part of students.

CHAPTER V
Community language learning
1. Background Theory
Community language learning is the name of a method introduced and developed by Charles A. Curran and his associates. Curran was a specialist in counseling and a professor of psychology at Loyola University in Chicago. It is no doubt that this method has been inspired by the application of psychological counseling techniques to learning, which is called counseling-learning. Community language learning represents the use of counseling-learning theory to teach foreign language. Community Language Learning represents the use of counseling Learning theory to teach languages. CLL technique also belongs to large set of foreign language teaching practices sometimes described as humanistic techniques (Moskowitz 1978). In sum, humanistic techniques engage the whole person, including the emotions and feelings (the affective realm) as well as linguistic knowledge and behavioral skills. Another language teaching tradition with which CLL is linked is a set of practice used in certain kinds of bilingual Education programs and referred to by Mackey (1972) as “ language alternation “. In language alternation, a message/lesson/class is presented first in the native language and then again in the second language. Students know the meaning and flow of an L2 message from their recall of the parallel meaning and flow of an L1 message. They begin to holistically piece together a view of the language out of these message sets. In CLL, a learner presents a message in L1 to the knower. The message is translated into L2 by the knower. The learner then repeats the message in L2, addressing it to another learner with whom he or she wishes to communicate.
2. Approach: Theory of language and learning
1) The Theory of language
a. Theory 1
Language is purposeful behavior between people, intertwined with other kinds of purposive behavior between the same people (Stevick, 1976).
b. Theory 2
Language as social process, meaning that language is person in contact and in response (Richards and Rogers, 1986: 115-116 and 2001).
2) Theory of learning
a. Theory 1
The human person learns new behavior rapidly if the learner is not busy defending himself from someone else (Stevick, 1976).
b. Theory 2
Language learning is both cognitive and affective (Richards and Rogers, 1986: 117 and 2001). Whole-person learning (Curran, 1977).
c. Theory 3
Language learning will take place if language learners maintain their feeling of security.
3. Design of teaching: Objective of method
Community Language Learning (CLL) combines innovative learning task and activities with conventional ones.
4. Syllabus
Community language learning (CLL) syllabus emerges from the interaction between the learner’s expressed communicative intentions and teacher’s reformulation of these into suitable target-language utterance.
5. Types of learning teaching Activity
They include:
1. Translation.
Learners from a small circle. A learner whispers a message or meaning he or she wants to express, the teacher it into the target language, and the learner repeats the teacher’s translation.
2. Group work.
Learner may engage in various group tasks, such as small-group discussion of a topic.
3. Recording.
Student record conversations in the target language.
4. Transcription.
Students transcribe utterances and conversations they have recorded for practice and analysis of linguistic forms.
5. Analysis.
Students analyze and study transcriptions of target-language sentences in order to focus on particular lexical usage or on the application of particular grammar rules.
6. Reflection and observation.
Learners reflect and report on their experience of the class, as a class or in group.
7. Listening.
Students listen to a monologue by the teacher involving elements they might have elicited or overheard in class interactions.
8. Free conversation.
Students engage in free conversation with the teacher or with other learners.
6. Learner’s role
Learner roles in CLL are well defined. Learners become members of a community-their follow learners and the teacher – and learn through interacting with the community. Learner roles are keyed to the five stages of language learning outline earlier. The view of the learner is an organic one, with each new role growing developmentally out of the one preceding. These role changes are not easily or automatically achieved. They are in fact seen as outcomes of affective crises.

7. Teacher roles
The teacher’s roles derive from the functions of the counselor and initially likened to that of a nurturing parent. The counselor’s role is to respond calmly and nonjudgmental, in a supportive manner, and help the client try to understand his or her problems better by applying order and analysis to them.
8. Role of instructional material
Materials may be developed by the teacher as the course develops, although hese generally consist of little more than summaries on the blackboard or overhead projector of some of the linguistic features of conversations generated by students.
9. Procedures
Procedures of CLL:
a. Preliminary contact
b. Investment: making the recording
c. Reflection: listening to the tape and writing the conversation down
d. Discrimination: passive listening and writing sentences
e. Reflection: the teacher asks learners to reflect on the language class, as a class or in group.
10. Conclusion
Community language learning places unusual demands on language teachers. They must be highly proficient and sensitive to nuance in both L1 and L2. They must be familiar with sympathetic to the role of counselors in psychological counseling. The teacher must also be relatively non-directive and must be prepared to accept and even encourage the “adolescent” aggression of the learner as he or she strives for independence. The teacher must operate without conventional materials, depending on student topics to shape and motivate the class.




CHAPTER VI
Total Physical Response
1. Background Theory
Total physical response (TPR) is a language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and action; it attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity. Developed by James Asher, a professor of psychology of at sun Jose state university’ California, it draws on several traditions, including developmental psychology learning theory , and humanistic pedagogy, as well as on language teaching procedures proposed by Harold and Dorothy Palmer in 1925. In a developmental sense, Asher sees successful adult second language learning as parallel process to child first language acquisition. He claims that speech directed to young children consist primarily of commands, which children respond to physically before they begin to produce verbal responses. Asher feels that adult should recapitulate the processes by which children acquire their narrative language.
Asher shares with the school of humanistic psychology a concern for the role of affective (emotional) factor in language learning. A method that is undemanding in terms of linguistic production and that involves game like movements reduces learner stress; he believes and creates a positive mood in the learner, which facility learning.
2. Approach: Theory of Language and Learning
TPR reflect a grammar-based of view language. Asher states that “most of grammatical structure of the target language and hundreds vocabulary items can be learned from the skillful use the imperative by the instructor” (1977:4). He view the verb and particularly the verb in improve, as the central linguistic motif around which language use and learning are organized.
Asher sees a stimulus- response view as providing the learning theory underlying language teaching pedagogy. TPR can also be linked to the” trace theory” of memory in psychology.(e.g, Katona 1940), which holds that the more often or the more intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger the memory association will be and more likely it will be recalled. Retracing can be done verbally (e.g., by rote repetition) and/ or in association with motor activity. Combined tracing activities, such as verbal rehearsal accompanied by motor activity, hens increase the possibility of successful recall.
In addition, Asher has elaborated an account of what he feels facilitates or inhibits foreign language learning. For this dimension of his learning theory he draws on there rather influential learning hypotheses:
1. There exists a specific innate bio program for language learning, which defines an optimal path for first and second language development.
2. Brain lateralization defines deferent learning functions in the left- and right brain hemispheres.
3. Stress (an affective filter) intervenes between the act of learning and what is to be learned; the lower the stress, the greater the learning.
Let us consider how Asher views each of these in turn.

a) The bio-program
Asher’s total physical response is a “natural method”(see chapter 1) inasmuch as Asher sees first and second language learning as parallel process. Asher sees three processes as central:
1. Children develop listening competence before they develop the ability to speak. At the early stages of first language acquisition, they can understand complex utterances that they can not spontaneously product or imitate.
2. Children’s ability in listening comprehension is acquired because children are required to respond physically to spoken language in form of parental commands.
3. Once of foundation in listening comprehension has been established, speech evolves naturally and effortlessly out of it.
Parallel to the processes of first language learning, the foreign language learner should first internalize a “cognitive map” of the target language through listening exercises. Listening should be accompanied by physical movement. Speech and other productive skills should come later. Asher bases these assumptions on his belief in the existence in the human brain of a bio-program for language, which defines an optimal order for first and second language learning.
A reasonable hypothesis is that the brain and nervous system are biologically programmed to acquire language…in a particular sequence and in a particular mode. The sequence is listening before speaking and the mode is to synchronize language with the individual’s body. (Asher 1977: 4)

b) Brain lateralization
Asher sees Total Physical Response as directed to right-brain learning, whereas most second language teaching methods are directed to left brain learning. Drawing on work by Jean Piaget, Asher holds that the child language learner acquires language through motor movement-a right-hemisphere activity. Right-hemisphere activities must occur before the left hemisphere can process language for production.
Similarly, the adult should proceed to language mastery through right-hemisphere motor activities, while the left hemisphere watches and learns. When a sufficient amount of right-hemisphere learning has taken place, the left hemisphere will be triggered to produce language and to initiate other, more abstract language processes.
c) Reduction of stress
An important condition for successful language learning is the absence of stress. First language acquisition takes place in a stress-free environment, according to Asher, whereas the adult language learning environment often causes considerable stress and anxiety. The key to stress-free learning is to tap into the natural bio-program for language development and thus to recapture the relaxed and pleasurable experiences that accompany first language learning. By focusing on meaning interpreted through movement, rather than on language forms studied in the abstract, the learner is said to be liberated from self-conscious and stressful situations and is able to devote full energy to learning.
3. Design: Objectives, Syllabus, Learning activities, roles of learners, teachers, and materials.
The general objectives of Total Physical Response are to teach oral proficiency at a beginning level. Comprehension is a means to an end, and the ultimate aim is to tech basic speaking skills. A TPR course aims to produce learners who are capable of an uninhibited communication that is intelligible to a native speaker. Specific instruction objectives are not elaborated, for these will depend on the particular needs of the learners. Whatever goals are set, however, must be attainable through the use of action-based drills in the imperative form.
The type of syllabus Asher uses can be inferred from an analysis of the exercise type employed in TPR classes. This analysis reveals the use of a sentence-based syllabus, with grammatical and lexical criteria being primary in selecting items. Unlike methods that operate from a grammar-based or structural view of the core elements of language, total Alternative approaches and methods. Physical Response requires initial attention to meaning rather than to the form of items. Grammar is thus taught inductively.
Asher also suggests that a fixed number of items be introduced at a time, to facilitate ease of differentiation and assimilation. “ in an hour, it is possible for students to assimilate 12 to 36 new lexical items depending upon the size of the group and the stage of training“ (Asher 1977: 42 ). A course designed around total physical response principles, however, would not be expected to follow a tpr syllabus exclusively.
Imperative drills are the major classroom activity in total typical response. There are typically used to elicit physical actions and activity on the part of the learners. Conversational dialogues are delayed until after about 120 hours of instruction. Other class activities include role plays and slide presentation. Role plays center on everyday situation, such as at the restaurant, supermarket, or gas station.
Learners in total physical response have the primary roles of listener and performer. They listen attentively and respond physically to commend given by the teacher. Learners are also expected to recognize and respond to novel combinations of previously taught items.
They are required to produce to novel combinations of their own. Learners monitor and evaluator their own progress. They are encouraged to step when they fell ready to speak- that is, when a sufficient basis in the language has been internalized. The teacher plays an active and direct role in total physical response. It is the teacher who decides what to teach, who models and presents the new materials, and who selects supporting materials for classroom use. As her recommends the tailed lesson plans: “ it is wise to wide out the exact utterances you will be using and especially the novel commends because the action is so fast- moving there is usually not time for you to create spontaneously”(1977:47).
As her stresses, however, that the teacher’s role is not so much to teach as to provide opportunities for learning The teacher has the responsibility of providing the best kind of exposure to language so that the learner can internalize the based rules of the target language. Thus the teacher controls the language input the learners receive, providing the raw material for the “cognitive map” that the learners will construct in their own minds. The teacher should also allow speaking abilities to develop in learners at the learners’ own natural pace.
In giving feedback to learners, the teacher should follow the example of parent giving feedback to their children. At first, parent correct very little, but as the child grows alder, parent are side to tolerate fewer mistakes in speech. Similarly, teachers should refrain from too much correction in the early stages and should not interrupt to correct errors, since this will in habit learners. As time goes on however, more teacher intervention is expected as learners’ speech becomes “fine-tuned”.
There is generally basic text in a total physical response course. Materials and reality play an increasing role, however in later learning stages. For absolute beginners, lessons my not require the use of materials since the teacher’s voice, actions, and gestures may be a sufficient basis for classroom activities. Later, the teacher may use common classroom objects, such as books, pens, cups, furniture. As the course develops, the teacher will need to make or collect supporting materials to support teaching points. These may include pictures, realia slides, and word charts Asher has developed TPR student kits that focus on specific situations, such as the home, the super market, the beach. Students may use the kits to construct scenes (e.g., “put the stove in the kitchen”).
4. Procedure
Asher (1977) provides a lesson-by –lesson account of a course taught according to TPR principles, which serves as a source of information on the procedures used in the TPR classroom the course was for adult immigrants and consisted of 159 hours of classroom instruction. The sixth class in the course proceeded in the following why:
Review: This was a fast-moving warm-up in which individual students were moved which commands such as:
Pablo, dive your car around Miako and honk your horn.
Jeffe, throw the red flower to Maria.
Maria, scream.
Rita, pick up the knife and spoon and put them in the cup.
Eduardo, take a drink of water and give the cup to Elaine.
New commands. These verbs were induced.
Wash your hands.
Your face
Your heir
Look for a towel
The soap.
a comb
Hold the book
the cup
the soap
Comb your heir
Maria’s heir
Shirous’s heir
Brush your teeth
Your pants
The table
Other item introduced were:
Rectangles draw a rectangle on the chalkboard.
Alternative approaches and methods
Pick up a rectangle from the table and give to me.
Put the rectangle next to the square.
Triangles pick up the triangle from the table and give to me.
Catch the triangle and put it next to the rectangle.
Quickly walk quickly to the door and hit it.
Quickly, run to the table and touch the square.
Sit down quickly and laugh.
Slowly walk slowly to the window and jump.
Slowly, stand up.
Slowly walk to me and hit me on the arm.
Toothpaste look for the toothpaste
Throw the toothpaste to wing.
Wing, unscrew the top of the toothpaste.
Toothbrush takes out your toothbrush.
Brush your teeth
Put your toothbrush in your book.
Teeth touch your teeth.
Show your teeth to Dolores.
Dolores point to Eduardo’s teeth.
Soap look for the soap.
Give the soap Elaine
Elaine, put the soap in Ramiro’s ear
Towel put the towel on Juan’s arm.
Juan’s put the towel on your head and laugh.
Maria, wipe your hands on the towel.
Next, the instructor asked simple question which the student could answer with a gesture such as pointing. Examples would be:
Where is the towel? [Eduardo, point to the towel!]
Where is the toothbrush? [ Miako, point to the toothbrush]
Where is Dolores?
Role reversal. Students readily volunteered to utter, commands bad manipulated the behavior of the instructor and other students………………..
Reading and writing. The instructor rote on the chalkboard each new vocabulary item and a sentence to illustrate the item. Then she spoke each item and acted out the sentence. The students listened as she reads the material. Some copied the information an their notebooks. (Asher 1977:54-56)
5. Conclusion
Total physical response enjoyed some popularity in the 1970s and 1980s because of its support by those who emphasize the role of comprehension in second language acquisition. Krashen (1981), for example, regards provision of comprehensible in put and reduction of stress as keys to successful language acquisition, and he sees performing physical actions in the target language as a means of making input comprehensible and minimizing stress (sees chapter 15). Asher stressed that total physical response should be used in association with or her method and techniques. Indeed, practitioners of TPR typically follow recommendation, suggesting that for many teachers TPR represents a useful set of techniques and is compatible with other approaches to teaching. TPR practices therefore May he affective for reason other that those proposed by Asher as do not necessary demand commitment to the learning theories used to justify them.

CHAPTER VII
Communicative Language Teaching
1. Background Theory
Communicative Language Teaching aims broadly to apply the theoretical perspective of the Communicative Approach by making communicative competence the goal of language teaching and by acknowledging the interdependence of language and communication. What this looks like in the classroom may depend on how he tenants are interpreted and applied. Nevertheless, we will follow our usual way of understanding the theory and associated practices by visiting a class in which of form of communicative language teaching is being practiced. The class we will visit is one being conducted for adult immigrants to Canada. These twenty people have lived in Canada for two years and are a high- intermediate level of English proficiency.
They meet two evening’s weeks for two hours each class. Communicative language teaching began in Britain in the 1960s as a replacement to the earlier structural method, called Situational Language Teaching. This was partly in response to Chomsky's criticisms of structural theories of language and partly based on the theories of British functional linguistics, such as Firth and Halliday, as well as American sociolinguists, such as Hymes , Gumperz and Labov and the writings of Austin and Searle on speech acts. The communicative or functional view of language is the view that language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. The semantic and communicative dimensions of language are more emphasized than the grammatical characteristics, although these are also included.
2. Approach: Theory of language and learning
1) Theory of language
The functional view of language is the primary one behind the communicative method, as well as not a great deal has been written about the learning theory behind the communicative approaches, but here are some principles that may be inferred:
• activities that involve real communication promote learning
• activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning
• language that is meaningful to the learner promotes learning
The communicative approach in language teaching starts from a theory of language as communication. The goal of language teaching is to develop what Hymes (1972) referred to as "communicative competence." Hymes coined this term in order to contrast a communica¬tive view of language and Chomsky's theory of competence. Chomsky held that linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener in a completely homogeneous speech community, who knows its language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as mem¬ory limitation, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in actual performance. (Chomsky 1965: 3) For Chomsky, the focus of linguistic theory was to characterize the abstract abilities speakers possess that enable them to produce gram¬matically correct sentences in a language. Hymes held that such a view of linguistic theory was sterile, that linguistic theory needed to be seen as part of a more general theory incorporating communication and culture. Hymes's theory of communicative competence was a definition of what a speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively com¬petent in a speech community. In Hymes's view, a person who acquires communicative competence acquires both knowledge and ability for language use with respect to:
• Whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible;
• Whether (and to what degree) something is feasible in virtue of the means of implementation available;
• Whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy, successful) in relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated;
• Whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually per-formed, and what its doing entails.
This theory of what knowing a language entails offers a much more comprehensive view than Chomsky's view of competence, which deals primarily with abstract grammatical knowledge.
Another linguistic theory of communication favored in CLT is Halliday's functional account of language use. "Linguistics ... is concerned... with the description of speech acts or texts, since only through the study of language in use are all the functions of language, and therefore all components of meaning, brought into focus" (Halliday 1970: 145). In a number of influential books and papers, Halliday has elaborated a powerful theory of the functions of language, which complements Hymes's view of commu¬nicative competence for many writers on CLT (e.g., Brumfit and Johnson 1979; Savignon 1983). He described (1975: 11-17) seven basic functions that language performs for children learning their first language:
• The instrumental function: using language to get things;
• The regulatory function: using language to control the behavior of others;
• The interaction function: using language to create interaction with others;
• The personal function: using language to express personal feelings and meanings;
• The heuristic function: using language to learn and to discover;
• The imaginative function: using language to create a world of the imagination;
• The representational function: using language to communicate information.
Learning a second language was similarly viewed by proponents of Communicative Language Teaching as acquiring the linguistic means to perform different kinds of functions.
At the level of language theory, Communicative Language Teaching has a rich, if somewhat eclectic, theoretical base. Some of the characteristics of this communicative view of language follow.
• Language is a system for the expression of meaning.
• The primary function of language is for interaction and communication.
• The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.
• The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and struc-tural features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.
2) Theory of learning
In contrast to the amount that has been written in Communicative Language Teaching literature about communicative dimensions of language, little has been written about learning theory. Neither Brumfit and Johnson (1979) nor Littlewood (1981), for example, offers any discus¬sion of learning theory. Elements of an underlying learning theory can be discerned in some CLT practices, however. One such element might be described as the communication principle: Activities that involve real communication promote learning. A second element is the task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning (Johnson 1982). A third element is the meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learn¬ing process. Learning activities are consequently selected according to how well they engage the learner in meaningful and authentic language use (rather than merely mechanical practice of language patterns). These principles, we suggest, can be inferred from CLT practices (e.g., little-wood 1981; Johnson 1982). They address the conditions needed to promote second language learning, rather than the processes of language acquisition.
More recent accounts of Communicative Language Teaching, however, have attempted to describe theories of language learning processes that are compatible with the communicative approach. Savignon (1983) surveys second language acquisition research as a source for learning theories and considers the role of linguistic, social, cognitive, and in¬dividual variables in language acquisition. Other theorists (e.g., Stephen Krashen, who is not directly associated with Communicative Language Teaching) have developed theories cited as compatible with the principles of CLT. Krashen sees acquisition as the basic process involved in developing language proficiency and distinguishes this proc¬ess from learning. Acquisition refers to the unconscious development of the target language system as a result of using the language for real communication. Learning is the conscious representation of grammatical knowledge that has resulted from instruction, and it cannot lead to acquisition. It is the acquired system that we call upon to create utter¬ances during spontaneous language use. The learned system can serve only as a monitor of the output of the acquired system. Krashen and other second language acquisition theorists typically stress that language learning comes about through using language communicatively, rather than through practicing language skills.
Johnson (1984) and Littlewood (1984) consider an alternative learning theory that they also see as compatible with CLT-a skill-learning model of learning. According to this theory, the acquisition of communicative competence in a language is an example of skill development. This involves both a cognitive and a behavioral aspect:
The cognitive aspect involves the internalization of plans for creating appro¬priate behavior. For language use, these plans derive mainly from the language system — they include grammatical rules, procedures for selecting vocabulary, and social conventions governing speech. The behavioral aspect involves the automation of these plans so that they can be converted into fluent performance in real time. This occurs mainly through practice in con-verting plans into performance. (Littlewood 1984: 74) This theory thus encourages an emphasis on practice as a way of de¬veloping communicative skills.
3. The Characteristics of the Teaching Learning Process
The most obvious characteristic of CLT is that almost everything that is done with a communicative intent. Students use the language a great deal through communicative activities such as games, role plays, and problem- solving tasks (see discussion of these in the review of techniques). Activities that are truly communicative, according to Morrow (in Johnson and Morrow 1981) have three features in common: information gap, choice, and feedback.
An information gap exists when one person in an exchange knows something the other person does not. If we both know today is Tuesday and I ask you, ‘What is today? And you answer, “Tuesday, ’our exchange is not really communicative.
In communication, the speaker has a choice of what she will say and how she will say it. If the exercise is tightly controlled so that student can only say something in one way, the speaker has no choice and the exchange, therefore, is not communicative In a chain drill, for example, if a student must reply to her neighbor’s else’s question in the same way as her neighbor replied to someone else’s question, then she has no choice of from and content, and real communication does not occur.
4. Design of teaching: Objective of method
Here are some of the objectives of communicative language teaching:
• Students will learn to use language as a means of expression
• Students will use language as a means of expressing values and judgments
• Students will learn to express the functions that best meet their own communication needs.
Piepho (1981) discusses the following levels of objectives in a communicative approach:
 An integrative and content level (language as a means of expression).
 A linguistic and instrumental level (language as a semiotic system and an object of learning);
 An affective level of interpersonal relationships and conduct (language as a means of expressing values and judgments about oneself and others);
 A level of individual learning needs (remedial learning based on error analysis);
 A general educational level of extra-linguistic goals (language learning within the school curriculum).
5. Syllabus
Communicative language teaching often uses a functional – notional syllabus. Yalden (1987) has classified a number of communicative syllabus types. Discussions of the nature of the syllabus have been central in Communicative Language Teaching. We have seen that one of the first syllabus models to be proposed was described as a notional syllabus (Wilkins 1976), which specified the semantic-grammatical categories (e.g., frequency, motion, location) and the categories of communicative function that learners need to express. The Council of Europe expanded and developed this into a syllabus that included descriptions of the objectives of foreign language courses for European adults, the situations in which they might typically need to use a foreign language (e.g., travel, business), the topics they might need to talk about (e.g., personal identification, education, shopping), the functions they needed language for (e.g., describing something, requesting information, expressing agreement and disagreement), the notions made use of in communication (e.g., time, frequency, duration), as well as the vocabulary and grammar needed. The result was published as Threshold Level English (van Ek and Alex¬ander 1980) and was an attempt to specify what was needed in order to be able to achieve a reasonable degree of communicative proficiency in a foreign language, including the language items needed to realize this "threshold level."
6. Types of learning techniques and activities
Communicative language teaching uses almost any activity that engages learners in authentic communication. Latewood however has distinguished two major activity types:
• Functional communication activities: ones aimed at developing certain language skills and functions, but which involve communication, and
• social interaction activities, such as conversation and discussion sessions, dialogues and role plays
The range of exercise types and activities compatible with a commu-nicative approach is unlimited, provided that such exercises enable learn¬ers to attain the communicative objectives of the curriculum, engage learners in communication, and require the use of such communicative processes as information sharing, negotiation of meaning, and interaction. Classroom activities are often designed to focus on completing tasks that are mediated through language or involve negotiation of in¬formation and information sharing.
7. Learner roles
The emphasis in Communicative Language Teaching on the processes of communication, rather than mastery of language.
8. Teacher roles
Several roles are assumed for teachers in Communicative Language Teaching, the importance of particular roles being determined by the view of CLT adopted. Breen and Candlin describe teacher roles in the following terms:
The teacher has two main roles: the first role is to facilitate the communica¬tion process between all participants in the classroom, and between these participants and the various activities and texts. The second role is to act as an independent participant within the learning-teaching group. The latter role is closely related to the objectives of the first role and arises from it. These roles imply a set of secondary roles for the teacher; first, as an organizer of resources and as a resource himself, second as a guide within the classroom procedures and activities.... A third role for the teacher is that of researcher and learner, with much to contribute in terms of appropriate knowledge and abilities, actual and observed experience of the nature of learning and organi-zational capacities. (1980: 99)
9. The role of instructional materials
A wide variety of materials have been used to support communicative approaches to language teaching. Unlike some contemporary methodologies, such as Community Language Learning, practitioners of Com¬municative Language Teaching view materials as a way of influencing the quality of classroom interaction and language use. Materials thus have the primary role of promoting communicative language use. We will consider three kinds of materials currently used in CLT and label these text-based, task-based, and reality.
10. Procedure
It is difficult to summarize the procedure in communicative classes because of the wide variety of activities used.
11. Conclusion
Communicative Language Teaching is best considered an approach rather than a method. Thus although a reasonable degree of theoretical con-sistency can be discerned at the levels of language and learning theory, at the levels of design and procedure there is much greater room for individual interpretation and variation than most methods permit. It could be that one version among the various proposals for syllabus models, exercise types, and classroom activities may gain wider approval in the future, giving Communicative Language Teaching a status similar to other teaching methods. On the other hand, divergent interpretations might lead to homogeneous subgroups.
Communicative Language Teaching appeared at a time when British language teaching was ready for a paradigm shift. Situational Language Teaching was no longer felt to reflect a methodology appropriate for the seventies and beyond. CLT appealed to those who sought a more humanistic approach to teaching, one in which the interactive processes of communication received priority. The rapid adoption and implemen¬tation of the communicative approach also resulted from the fact that it quickly assumed the status of orthodoxy in British language teaching circles, receiving the sanction and support of leading British applied linguists, language specialists, publishers, as well as institutions, such as the British Council (Richards 1985).
Now that the initial wave of enthusiasm has passed, however, some of the claims of CLT are being looked at more critically (Swan 1985). The adoption of a communicative approach raises important issues for teacher training, materials development, and testing 'and evaluation. Questions that have been raised include whether a communicative approach can be applied at all levels in a language program, whether it is equally suited to ESL and EFL situations, whether it requires existing grammar-based syllabuses to be abandoned or merely revised, how such an approach can be evaluated, how suitable it is for non-native teachers, and how it can be adopted in situations where students must continue to take grammar-based tests. These kinds of questions will doubtless require attention if the communicative movement in language teaching continues to gain momentum in the future.

CHAPTER VIII
Cooperative Learning (CL)
1. Background Theory
The method we will examine in this chapter advises teacher to consider their student as whole person. whole person learning means that teacher consider not only their students intellect, but also have some understanding of the relationship among student’s felling, physical reactions, instinctive protective reactions, and despise to learn. The community language learning method takes its principles from the more general counseling learning approach developed by Charles A. Curran. Curran studied adult learning for many years. He was also influenced by Carl Rogers’ humanistic psychology 9Roger 1951 Brown 1994) and he found that adults often feel threatened by a new learning and by the fear that they will appear foolish. Curran believed that a way to deal with the fears of students is for teacher to become language counselors, A LANGUAGE COUNSELOR DOES NOT MEAN SOMEONE TRAINED IN PSYCHOLOGY IT MEANS SOMEONE WHO IS A SKILLFULL understand of the struggle students face as they attempt to internalize another language. The reached who can understand fear and being sensitive to them, he can help students overcome their negative feelings and turn them into positive energy to further their learning. Let us see how Curran’s ideas are put into practice in the community language learning method. We observe a class in a private language institute in Indonesia. Most of the students of the students work during the day and come floor language instruction in the evening. The class meets two evenings a week for two houses a session. This is the first class. `
Experience
THE STUDENTS ARRIVE AND TAKE THEIR SEATS. THE CHAIRS ARE IN A Circle around a table that a tape recorder on it. After greeting the students, the teacher introduces himself and has the students introduce themselves. In Indonesia, he tells the students \what they will be doing that evening. They are going to have a conversation in English with his help. The conversation will be tape recorded, and afterward, they will create a written form will be spent doing various activities with the language on the transcript. He then explains how the students are to have the conversation.
Whenever one of you would like to say something, rise you hand and will come behind you. I will not be a participant in the conversation except to help you say in English what you want you say. Say what you want to say in Indonesia. I will give you the English translation in phrases “Or chunks”. Record only the chunks one at a time after the conversation. When we listen to the recording your sentence will sound whole. Only your voices in English will be on the tape. Since this is your fish English conversation, you may what to keep it simple. We have ten minutes for this activity.
No one speaks at first .then your woman raiser her hand. The teacher walks to her chair. He stand her “Selamat sore” she say teacher translates , good on the tape and turns with the switch on the microphone , she puts “good on the tape turns the switch off. The teacher then gives “ evening” and she tries to say “ evening” in the microphone but only gets out “ evening the teacher say again in a clear and warm voice , somewhat exaggerating the word, Evening the woman tries again. She shows some signs of her discomfort with the experience, but she success in putting whole word “evening” on to the recording.
Another student raises his hand. The teacher walk to him and stands behind his chair” selamat sore” the second students says to the first student”apa kabar? He asks of a third. The teacher , already sensing that this students is a bit more secure, gives the entire translation , good this students is a bit more secure , gives the entire translation. Good evening. “Good evening the students says, putting the phrase on the tape. “ How are you? The teacher continues, how the students says into the microphone then turns obviously seeking help for the rest of the phrase the teacher , realizing he needs to give smaller chunks, repeats each word separates the teacher. How the student into the microphone says is repeats the teacher are the student says you completes the teacher. You are the students’ records.
The students to whom the question was directed raises his hand and the teacher stands behind him “kabar baik” Terima kasih” be responds. Fine the teacher says. Fine the student records. Thank you the teacher completes. Thank you the students confidently puts on the tape teacher completes. Thanks you, the students confidently put on the tape.
A fourth student asks of another, nama saudara siapa? The teacher steps behind her and says what you’re name/pausing after each word to give the students time to put her question successful on the tape.
The other students “repetlies nama saya soleh” my name is soleh? The teacher says in English “apakabar” another student asks saleh. How are you? The teacher translates saya tidak sehat, saleh answer “I am not weal, the teacher translate “mengpa?” asks another students “why?” says the teacher “sebab kepala saya pusing” saleh replies. Because I have a headache translates the teacher. each of there English utterances is recorded in the manner of the earlier ones the teacher trying to be sensitive to what size chunk each students can handle with confidence , the teacher then announces that they have five minutes left. During this time the students ask question like why someone is studying English, what someone does for a living and what someone’s hobbies are. In this conversation does for a living, and what someone’s hobbies are. In this conversation each student around the table records some English utterance on the tape.
After the conversation has ended the teacher sits the circle and asks the teacher sits in the circle and asks the students in Indonesian how they feel about the experience. One student says that he does not remember any of the English he has just heard. The teacher accepts what he says and responds. You have a concern that you haven’t learned any English, he was just another student says he, too, has not learned any English he was just involved in the conversation. The teacher accepts this comment and replies, your attention was on the conversation, not on the English another students says that she does not mind the fact that she cannot remember any English she has enjoyed the conversation. the teacher accepts her comment and reassures her and all the students that they will yet have an opportunity to learn the English words – that he does not except them to remember the English phrase at this time .” would anyone else like to say anything ?’ the teacher asks. Since there is silence, the teacher continues, ‘ok, then. Let’s listen to your conversation. I will play the tape; just listen to your voice in English. The student listen “OK ‘, the teacher say” I going to play the tape again and stop it at the end of each sentence. See if you can recall what you said, and say it again in Indonesia to be sure that everyone understand what was said. If you can’t recall your own sentence, we can all help out. ‘They have no trouble recalling what was said.
Next the teacher asks them to move their chair into a semicircle and to watch as he writes the conversation on the blackboard. The teacher asks if anyone would like to operate the tape recorder and stop it at the end of each sentence. No one volunteers so the teacher operates it himself. The teacher then written line by line, numbering each English sentences. One student asks if he can copy the sentences. The teacher asks him to say focused on the words being written up at this point and reassures him that there will be time for copying later, if not in this class session, then in the next.
The Indonesians’ equivalent. He quietly underlines the first English word and then pauses. He asks the students to give the Indonesia equivalents since no one volunteers the meaning, after second he writes the literal Indonesia translation. He continues this way until all the sentences are translated leaving out any unnecessary repletion.
Next the teacher tell s the students to sir back and relax as reads the transcript of the English conversation to sit back and relax as he reads the transcript of the English conversation . He reads it three times, varying the students’ task each time. The firs time, students just listen. The next time they close their eyes and listen. The last time they silently mouth the word as the teacher reads the conversation.
For the next activity the “Human Computer” the students are told in a warm manner, for the next five to ten minutes I am going to turn into a “human computer” for you. You may use me to practice the pronunciation of any English word or phrase or entire sentence on the transcript raise your hand I‘ll come behind you. Then you say either the sentences number or the word in English or Indonesia you want to practice as the computer I’m programmed to give back only correct English , so you will have to listen carefully to see if what you say matches what I am saying . You may repeat the word, phrase, or sentence as many times as you want. I will stop only when you stop. You control me you turn the computer on and off.
A students raises his hand and say “Thanks you” he has trouble with the sound at the beginning of thanks the teacher repeats the phrase after him and the students says it again. The teacher repeats it. Three more times the students start the computer by saying, Thanks you after the teacher has said it for the third time. The students’ stops which in turn stop the computer.
Another students raises his hand says thanks you he has trouble with the sound at the beginning of thanks the teacher repeats the phrase after him and the students says it again. The teacher repeats it three more times the students start the computer by saying, thanks you after the teacher has said it for the third time the students stop, which in turn stop the computer.
Another student raises his hand and say, what do you do? Question from the transcript. Again the teacher moves behind the students and repeats the question the student has chosen to practice some part of the transcript in a similar manner.
The teacher then asks the students to work in groups of three to create new sentence based upon the word and phrases of the transcript. Each group writes the sentences “adik does not word in a bank “the second group writes “what is my name? OK says the teacher. After the finished helping threw group, each group reads its sentences to the class.
The teacher replays the tape two times more while the students listen. Finally the teacher tells the class they have ten minutes left the session. He asks them o talk about the experience they experience they have had that evening, their English and or their learning process. As students respond the teacher listen carefully and reflects back to the students in such a way that each feels the experience, one a beginning language class. I now think I can learn English she says: for the next two teacher classes the teacher decides to have the student’s continuo to work with the conversation they created. Some of the activities are as follows:
1. The teacher selects the verb is from the transcript and together he and the students conjugate it for person and number in the present tense they do the same for the sentence they have created with the rest of the class.
2. The students work in small groups to make sentence with the new forms. They share the sentence have created with the rest of the class.
3. Students take turn reading the transcript. One students reading the English and another reading the Indonesia. They have an opportunity to work on their English pronunciation again as well.
4. The teacher puts a picture of a person on the blackboard and the students ask question of that person as if they have just met him.
5. The students reconstruct the conversation they learned to say during.
6. They create a new dialog using words they have learned to say during their conversation.
When they finish these activities the class has another conversation records and uses the new transcript as the basis for subsequent activities.

THING ABOUT THE EXPERIENCE
NO OBSERVATIONS PRINCIPLES
1. The teacher greets the students introduces him self and has the students introduce themselves Building a relation with and among students is very important
2 The teacher tells the students what they are going to do that evening. He explains the procedure of thee fish activity and sets a time limit. Any new learning be threatening when students have an idea what will happen in each activity they often feel more secure. People learn non defensively when feel secure
3 Student have a conversation Language is for communication,
4 The teacher stands behind the student The superior knowledge and power of the teacher can be threatening. If the teacher does not remain in the front of the class room, the threat is reduced and the student’s learning is facilitated. Also this fosters interaction among student rather
than from student to teacher

5 The teacher translates what the student want to say in chunk The teacher should be sensitive
To student level of confidence and give them just what they need to be successful.
6 The teacher tell them that they have only a few minutes remaining for the conversation Students feel more secure when they know the limits of an activity.
7 Student are invited to talk about have they felt during the conversation Teacher and student are whole person . sharing about their learning experience allows learners to get to know one another and to build community
8 The teacher accept what each student say Guided by the knowledge that each learns is unique, the teacher creates an accepting atmosphere. Learners feel free to lower their defenses and learning experience becomes less threatening.
9 The teacher understands what the students say. The teacher ‘counsels’ the student. He does not offer advice but rather show them that is really listening to them and understand what they are saying. By understanding how student gain insights into their own learning process as well as transform their negative feelings, which might otherwise block their learning.
10 The student listen to the tape and give the Indonesia translation The student native language is used to make the meaning clear and to build a bridge from the known to the unknown. Students feel more secure when they understand everything.

proposal

Contoh proposal

Halaman judul contoh: The correlation between SMK students’ understanding of sentence pattern and their achievement on reading comprehension at second grade of SMK Muhammadiyah 1 Metro.

Chapter I : Introduction
1.2 Problem Identification
• Sentence pattern
• Reading comprehension
• Reading skill
• Word form
• Lexical-combination and structure
1.3 Problem Limitation
• Student understanding sentence pattern
• Reading comprehension
1.4 Problem Formulation
• How far the score competence student understanding sentence pattern an optimal yet.
• How far the score competence of student reading comprehension an optimal yet.
• How far the correlation between students` understanding sentence pattern and their achievement in reading comprehension.
1.5 Research scope
• SMK Muhammadiyah 1 Metro
• Second year
• Reading and sentence pattern
• 2010/2011
1.6 Research objective
• To investigate the correlation between student understands of sentence pattern and their achievement on reading comprehension.
• To see how well the students understanding of sentence pattern
• To see how well the students achievement of reading comprehension.
1.7 Research benefit
• As a contribution for an English teacher
• For the children

Chapter II : Theoretical framework
2.1 Previous research overview
• SMAN 2 Bandar Lampung By Tirza Aseany about : The correlation between students` learning strategies in reading and students` reading achievement at the second year.
• SMAN 3 Semarang By Dewi Ratnawati about: The correlation between student vocabulary mastery and reading comprehension
• SMAN ! Terbanggi Besar By Fitry Paulina about: The correlation between SMA students` Understanding of sentence pattern and their achievement reading comprehension. At the second year of SMAN 1 Terbanggi Besar Lampung Tengah.
2.2 Theoretical review
• Content of reading comprehension
• It can be deduced that reading comprehension needs knowledge. Covering all language aspects, namely, vocabulary, structure, lexical combination, and accuracy of graphic symbols.
2.3 Thinking Framework
1. The researcher knows how the important the sentence pattern in reading. It means that by the student who wants to read English passage.
2.4 Hypothesis
2. Ha. There is a positive correlation between SMK students` understanding of sentence pattern and their achievement reading comprehension at second grade of SMK Muhammadiyah 1 Metro 2010/2011
3. Ho. There is no significant correlation between SMK students` understanding of sentence pattern and their achievement on reading comprehension at second grade of SMK Muhammadiyah 1 Metro 2010/2011.
4. Statistic Hypothesis
• Ha: ≥0.6= there is high and positive correlation
• Ho: ≤0.2= there is no correlation.
2.5 Relationship between sentence pattern and reading comprehension
• Relationship between sentence pattern and reading comprehension.
• Ability in reading comprehension.
• Ability to reading comprehension.
Chapter III : Research method
3.1 Research design
5. Description Quantitative Method( Simple Analyze: Classify Investigate)
3.2 Research variable
6. Variable X (Understanding of sentence pattern as the independent variable)
7. Variable Y (Reading ability as the dependent variable)
8. Variable XY (Understanding sentence pattern and achievement in reading comprehension)
3.3 The population and sample
• The population of this research was all the second years students of SMK Muhammadiyah 1 Metro in the academic year of 2010.
• The sample for correlation research is chosen by using the method acceptable sampling.
3.4 Research instrument
9. Try –out
10. Data treatment Technique
3.5 Data collecting technique
• The data of this research was collected by presenting the tests to the students.
1. Understanding of the sentence pattern test and
2. Reading comprehension test.
3.6 Data analysis technique
• Normality test of the data
• Random test
• Homogeneity test
• Hypothesis test
3.7 Data analysis technique
• Rumus/formula

PENJELASAN MENGAENAI SUMBER DATA, POPULASI, DAN SAMPEL
Kegiatan penelitian baik penelitian social ataupn penelitian eksakta selalu berkaitan dengan sumber data. Didalam sejarah perkembangan penelitian, pada awalnya yang dikatakan sebagai penelitian sumber data hanyalah apa yang ditemui oada saat itu baik yang dilihat ataupun yang didengar tanpa mempertimbangkan segi pekembangan dan waktu.

A PENGERTIAN SUMBER DATA
Sumber data dimaksudkan semua informasi baik yang merupakan benda nyata, sesuatu yang abstrak, peristiwa/gejala baik secara kuantitatif ataupun kualitatif. Sumber data yang bersiffat kualitatif didalam penelitian diusahakan tidak bersifat subjektif, oleh karena itu perlu diberi peringkat bobot. Di bawah ini di berikan contoh tentang sumber data.
1. Sumber data dalam bentuk benda nyata antaara lain :
a. Barang hidup misalnya: manusia, hewan,tumbuhan.
b. Barang mati misalnya: rumah, sepeda, jembatan, pesawat.

2. Sumber data dalam bentuk abstrak antara lain:
a. Perasaan, kepercayaan.
b. Kekuatan supranatural.

3. Sumber data dalam bentuk peristiwa/gejala antara lain:
a. Gejala alami misalnya: tanah longsor, banjir, gerhana matahari.
b. Gejala non alami misalnya: meningkatnya kenakalan remaja, meningkatnya kesatuan dan persatuan bangsa, budaya membaca pada anak.

4. Sumber data kuantitatif:
Sumber data kuantitatif adalah sumber data yang mampu disuughkan dalam bentuk angka-angka. Sumber data yang demikian akan sangat menguntungkan didalam pekerjaan analisis, karena secara langsung dapat diterapkan metode analisis disamping lebih bersifat objektif.
Contoh: Selama tahun 2002 pada kwartal pertama di pulau jawa terjadi peristiwa gempa bumi 20 kali, banjir 5 kali dan kebakaran hutan 2 kali.

5. Sumber data kualitatif
Sumber data kualitatif adalah sumber data yang disuguhkan dalam bentuk dua parameter abstrak misalnya: banyak-sedikit, tinggi-rendah, tua-muda, panas-dingin.
Agar sumber data tersebut dapat dianalisis dengan metode statistic maka data kualitatif harus ditrasformasikan menjadi sata yang bersifat kuantitatif. Agar usaha mentransformasikan nilai tersebut terlepas/bebas dari subjektifitas diperlukan penguasaan bidang ilmu yang bersangkutan.
Contoh: Suatu kasua pencurian sepedamotor dikatakan kecil apabila jumlah pencurian antara 1-4 tiap hari. Dikatakan besar apabila pencurian antara 5-10 tiap hari.

6. Populasi
Sesuai dengan kepentingan dalam penelitian, sumber data dapat dikelompokkan menjadi bagian yang lebih kecil. Pengelompokan ini dapat dilakukan dengan menambah factor/parameter.
Contoh: Kelompok mahasiswa dapat dibagi menjadi
• Mahasiswa baru
• Mahasiswa lama, yang kemudian dapat dibuat menjadi sub kelompok
1. Mahasiswa lama tingkat sarjana muda.
2. Mahasiswa lama tingkat sarjana
Pada proses pengkelompokan yang pertama ( a dan b) didasarkan atas status sebagai mahasiswa, sedang proses pengkelompokan yang kedua ( b-1 dan b-2) ditambah factor tingkat penguasan ilmu.
Tiap kelompok ataupun bagian dari kelompok terdiri dari beberapa unit yang mempunyai sifat atau karakter yang sama. Kelompok yang semikian disebut dengan istilah populasi. Setiap penelitian baik itu penelitian eksakta maupun penelitian non eksakta selalu dengan berhadapan dengan bervariasi sumber data, populassi serta sempel.
Populasi adalahkeseluruhan objek penelitian baik terdiri dari benda yang nyata, abstrak, peristiwa ataupun gejala yang merupakan sumber data dan memiliki sumber tertentudan sama. Beberapa pengkelompokan adalah
1. Populasi berdasarkan atas jumlah
2. Populasi berdasarkan atas turunan dari populasi terbatas tetapi dengan ruang lingkup yang lebih dipersempit
3. Populasi berdasarkan atas variansi unsure pembentuk sumber data
B. PENGERTIAN TENTANG SAMPEL
Sampel adalah bagian dari populasi yang memiliki sifat-sifat yang sama dari objek yang merupakan sumber data.
Sifat-sifat yang harus dimiliki oleh sample
1. Mempunyai sifat yang dimiliki oleh populasi: Apabila populasi dicirikan oleh warna, dimensi dan kekerasan bahan maka sempel juga dicirikan oleh sample yang sama.
2. Mewakili dari populasi, apabila dari sejumlah anggota populasi sesudah dipertimbangkan cukup diambil sebuah sample maka hasil pengujian sample tersebut akan mewakili seluruh anggota populasi.
3. Dapat digunakan untuk menggeneralisasi hasil analisis, berkaitan dngan keterangan di atas maka hasilnya akan berlaku untuk seluruh anggota populasi.
Tujuan pengambilan sample
1. Untuk mereduksi jumlah obyek yang akan diteliti, hal ini akn lebih bermanfaat apabila cara pengujian obyekdilakukan hingga rusak.
2. Dengan membatasi jumlah populasi bahkan wilayah populasi berusaha dengan membuat generalisasi hasil analisis.
3. Berusaha untuk mempersingkat waktu, memperkecil dana ataupun tenaga peneliti.
Untuk itu dalam penarikan sample dari sejumlah populasi agar tidak terjadi kekeliruan dalam melakukan penelitian perlu dipenuhi beberapa persyaratan.
Tahapan menentukan sample
Tahapan ini perlu dicermati seksama, karena pengambilan sample yang keliru mengakibetkan hasil penelitian akan bias atau tidak valid. Tahapan tersebut adalah:
1. Tentukan populasi terlebih dahulu ( jangan dibalik menentukan jumlah sample, baru kemudian menentukan populasi).
2. Batasi luasnya dngan menegaskan karakteristik populasi teoritis dengan cara melakukan identitas dan inventarisasi terehadap sifat-sifat populasi sebagai ruang lingkup dalam usaha dalam melakukan generalisasi. Perlu diperhatikan sekali lagi pengambilan sample yang salah, hasil penelitian akan bias.
LEMBARAN JUDUL
judul merupakan identifikasi yang mencerminkan karakteristik penelitian dan isi sekripsi sebadai salah satu bentuk laporan ilmiah. Oleh sebab itu perumusan nya harus menggambarkan pola hubungan sedikitnya dua variable dan sekaligus memperjelas metode penelitian dan analisis data yang akan digunakan dalam menelaah pola hubungan tersebut. Judul penelitian atau bentuk laporan hasil penelitian yang lain pada dasarnya dibedakan dalam dua judul berkaitan dan judul deskripsi.
1. Judul berkaitan
Menyatakan adanya keterkaitan antara dua variable atau lebih dalam suatu gejala empirik. Ditinjau dari pola hubungan terjadi, judul ini dibedakan lagi dalam tiga macam :
• Judul kausalita
Menyatakan adanya hubungan kausalita(sebab akibat) di antara variable-variable yang berkaitan, variable yang satu, variable yang tidak terikat (independent) mempengaruhi variable yang lain, variable terikat contoh :
Pengaruh Bina Usaha Swadaya Terhadap Peningkatan Keluarga Berencana di Kecamatan Limbangan.
• Judul resiprokal
Menyatakan hubungan pengaruh antara timbal(resiprokal) di antara variable-variable yang saling terikat contoh :
Pengaruh Timbal Balik Antara Kemiskinan dan Kebodohan di kecamatan limbangan.
• Judul asosiatif
Menyatakan adanya hubungan kerjasama antara variable-variable yang tidak sling mengikat contoh :
Kerjasama antara PSM dengan PKK dalam pembinaan Keluarga Miskin di Des pedasih Limbangan.
Koordinasi Lintas Sektor Antara Instansi Terkait Dalam Pengelolaan Gerkan Keluarga Berencana
Di kecamatan Limbangan.
• Judul fungsional
Menyatakan hubungan fungsional antara variable-variable yang terkait contoh :
Fungsi Bina Usaha Swadaya bagi Peningkaatan Pendapatan Keluarga di Kecamatan Limbangan.
Peranan technique Jigsaw Dalam Meningkatkan Kemampuan Speaking, Reading dan Writing Siswa SMP Kelas 1.
Peranan Metode Inquiry Dalam Meningkatkan Motivasi Belajar Bahasa Inggris Siswa SMA Kelas X.
Metode Pengumpulan Data
Data artinya informasi yang didapat melalui pengukuran pengukuran tertentu, untuk digunakan sebagai landasan dalam menyusun argumentasi logis menjadi fakta. Fakta itu sendiri adalah kenyataan yang telah diuji kebenarannya secara empiric, antara lain melalui analisis data.
Secara metodologis dikenal beberapa macam teknik pengumpulan data, di antaranya:
1. Observasi
2. Wawancara
3. Angket
4. Studi dokumentasi
Observasi
Observasi adalah teknik pengumpulan data yang dilakukan melalui suatu pengamatan, dengan disertai pencatatan – pencatatan terhadap keadaan atau perilaku objek sasaran. Orang yang melakukan observasi disebut terobservasi (observee).
Hal-hal yang perlu diperhatikan dalam melaksanakan observasi:
a. Diarahkan pada tujuan tertentu, bukan bersifat spekulatif, melainkan sistematis dan terencana.
b. Dilakukan pencatatan sesegera mungkin, jangan ditangguhkan dengan mengandalkan kekuatan daya ingat.
c. Diusahakan sedapat mungkin, pencatatan secara kuantitatif.
d. Hasilnya harus diperiksa kembali untuk diuji kebenarannya.
Keempat hal tersebutmenuntut adanya pedoman observasi yang dipersiapkan secara sistematika, misalnya untuk observasi terhadap kehadiran pegawai dalam melaksanakan tugas sehari-hari, sebagai salah satu tolak ukur dalam penelitian masalah disiplin kerja.
Wawancara
Wawancara adalah teknik pengumpulan data melalui proses tanya jawab lisan yang berlangsung satu arah, pertanyaan datang dari pihak yang mewawancarai dan jawaban diberikan oleh yang diwawancara. Kedudukan kedua pihak secara berbeda ini terus dipertanyakan selama proses tanya jawab berlangsung, berbeda dengan dialog yang kedudukan pihak-pihak terlibat bisa berubah dan bertukar fungsi setiap saat, waktu proses dialog terus berlangsung.
Orang yang mengajukan pertanyaan dalam proses wawancara disebut pewawancara(interview) dan yang memberikan wawancara disebut(interviewe)
Inetrviewe dibedakan kedalam dua macam, yaitu responden dan informan. Responden adalah sumberdata primer, data tentang dirinya sendirisebagai objek sasaran penelitian, sedangkan informan adalah sumber data sekunder,data tentang pihak lain, tentang responden. Oleh sebab itu informan hendaknya dipilih dari orang yang banyak mengetahuiatau mengenal keadaan responden.
Hal-hal yang perlu diperhatikan dalam wawancara:
1. Menjalin hubungan baik dengan yang akan diwawancarai serta menjelaskan maksud dari wawancara yang akan dilakukan dengan harapan dapat mengungkapkan sebanyak mungkindata yang ingin digali.
2. Menyatakan pernyataan yang tercantum dalam kuesioner(berasal dari bahasa Inggris yaitu quesionaire yang artinya serangkaian pertanyaan)

Puasa sunah dan niatnya

Adapun macam-macam puasa sunnah beserta keutamaannya masing-masing yaitu:
1. Puasa enam hari di bulan Syawal, baik dilakukan secara berturutan ataupun tidak. Keutamaan puasa romadhon yang diiringi puasa Syawal ialah seperti orang yang berpuasa selama setahun (HR. Muslim).
2. Puasa sepuluh hari pertama bulan Dzulhijjah, yang dimaksud adalah puasa di sembilan hari yang pertama dari bulan ini, tidak termasuk hari yang ke-10. Karena hari ke-10 adlah hari raya kurban dan diharomkan untuk berpuasa.
3. Puasa hari Arofah, yaitu puasa pada hari ke-9 bulan Dzuhijjah. Keutamaan: akan dihapuskan dosa-dosa pada tahun lalu dan dosa-dosa pada tahun yang akan datang (HR. Muslim). Yang dimaksud dengan dosa-dosa di sini adalah khusus untuk dosa-dosa kecil, karena dosa besar hanya bisa dihapus dengan jalan bertaubat.
4. Puasa Muharrom, yaitu puasa pada bulan Muharrom terutama pada hari Assyuro’. Keutamaannya adalah bahwa puasa di bulan ini adalah puasa yang paling utama setelah puasa bulan Romadhon (HR. Bukhori)
5. Puasa Assyuro’. Hari Assyuro’ adalah hari ke-10 dari bulan Muharrom. Nabi sholallohu ‘alaihi wasssalam memerintahkan umatnya untuk berpuasa pada hari Assyuro’ ini dan mengiringinya dengan puasa 1 hari sebelum atau sesudahnhya. Hal ini bertujuan untuk menyelisihi umat Yahudi dan Nasrani yang hanya berpuasa pada hari ke-10. Keutamaan: akan dihapus dosa-dosa (kecil) di tahun sebelumnya (HR. Muslim).
6. Puasa Sya’ban. Disunnahkan memperbanyak puasa pada bulan Sya’ban. Keutamaan: bulan ini adalah bulan di mana semua amal diangkat kepada Robb semesta alam (HR. An-Nasa’i & Abu Daud, hasan).
7. Puasa pada bulan Harom (bulan yang dihormati) yaitu bulan Dzulqa’dah, Dzulhijjah, Muharrom, dan Rojab. Dianjurkan untuk memperbanyak amal ibadah pada bulan-bulan tersebut termasuk ibadah puasa.
8. Puasa Senin dan Kamis. Namun tidak ada kewajiban mengiringi puasa hari Senin dengan puasa hari Kamis atau sebaliknya. Keduanya merupakan hari di mana amal-amal hamba diangkat dan diperlihatkan kepada Alloh.
9. Puasa tiga hari setiap bulan. Disunnahkan untuk melakukannya pada hari-hari putih (Ayyaamul Bidh) yaitu tanggal 13, 14, dan 15 setiap bulan. Sehingga tidaklah benar anggapan sebagian orang yang menganggap bahwa puasa pada harai putih adalah puasa dengan hanya memakan nasi putih, telur putih, air putih, dsb.
10. Puasa Dawud, yaitu puasa sehari dan tidak puasa sehari. Keutamaannya adalah karena puasa ini adalah puasa yang paling disukai oleh Alloh (HR. Bukhori-Muslim).

1. Niat Puasa Senin – Kamis

نويت صوم يوم الاثنين سنة لله تعالى
" NAWAITU SAUMA YAUMUL ISNAIN SUNNATAN LILLAHI TA'ALA



“ Saya niat puasa hari Senin, Sunnah karena Allah ta’ala.”

نويت صوم يوم الخميس سنة لله تعالى
NAWAITU SAUMA YAUMUL KHOMIS SUNNATAN LILLAHI TA'ALA



“ Saya niat puasa hari Kamis, sunnah karena Allah ta’ala.”

2. Niat Puasa Daud
نويت صوم داود سنة لله تعالى
NAWAITU SAUMA DAWUD SUNNATAN LILLAHI TA'ALA

“ Saya niat puasa Daud , sunnah karena Allah ta’ala

3. Niat Puasa Hari-hari Putih .

نويت صوم ايام البيض سنة لله تعالى
NAWAITU SAUMA AYYAMI BIDH SUNNATAN LILLAHI TA'ALA
“ Saya niat puasa pada hari-hari putih , sunnah karena Allah ta’ala.”

4. Niat Puasa Bulan Muharram (Puasa ’Asyura)

نويت صوم عشر سنة لله تعالى
“ Saya niat puasa hari ’Asyura , sunnah karena Allah ta’ala.”

5. Niat Puasa Bulan Rajab

نويت صوم شهر رجب سنة لله تعالى
NAWAITU SAUMA SYAHRI RAJAB LILLAHI TA'ALA
“ Saya niat puasa bulan Rajab , sunnah karena Allah ta’ala.”

6. Niat Puasa Sya’ban

نويت صوم شهر شعبان سنة لله تعالى
“ Saya niat puasa bulan sya’ban , sunnah karena Allah ta’ala.”

7. Niat Puasa Syawwal

نويت صوم شهر شوال سنة لله تعالى
NAWAITU SAUMA SYAHRI SYAWWAL SUNNATAN LILLAHI TA'ALAH

“ Saya niat puasa bulan Syawwal , sunnah karena Allah ta’ala.”

8. Niat Puasa Bulan Dzulhijjah (Puasa Tarwiyah & ‘Arafah).

نويت صوم ترويه سنة لله تعالى
NAWAITU SAUMA TARWIYAH SUNNATAN LILLAHI TA'ALAH
“ Saya niat puasa Tarwiyah, sunnah karena Allah ta’ala.”

نويت صوم عرفة سنة لله تعالى



NAWAITU SAUMA ARAFAH SUNNATAN LILLAHI TA'ALAH
“ Saya niat puasa Arafah , sunnah karena Allah ta’ala.”


Macam-Macam Puasa : Puasa Sunnah Dan Pengaruhnya Dalam Taqarrub Seorang Hamba Kepada Rabb-Nya


MACAM-MACAM PUASA, PUASA SUNNAH DAN PENGARUHNYA DALAM TAQARRUB (PENDEKATAN DIRI) SEORANG HAMBA KEPADA RABB-NYA

Oleh
Dr. Abdullah bin Muhammad bin Ahmad Ath-Thayyar


Pembahasan 1
MACAM-MACAM PUASA

Kita akan membicarakan tentang pembagian puasa dari segi halal dan haram. Hal itu karena puasa terkadang bisa wajib, terkadang sunnah, terkadang makruh dan terkadang haram. Pembahasan mengenai hal itu akan diberikan dalam beberapa permasalahan berikut ini:

Pertama: Puasa Wajib
Puasa wajib adalah puasa Ramadhan, puasa qadha' dari puasa Ramadhan, puasa nadzar, puasa fidyah dan kaffarat.

Kedua: Puasa Sunnah
Puasa sunnah adalah puasa yang oleh nash-nash syar'i dianjurkan untuk dikerjakan, yaitu:

1. Puasa enam hari pada bulan Syawwal.
2. Puasa hari Arafah bagi orang yang tidak sedang menunaikan ibdah haji.
3. Puasa hari Asyura (puasa pada tanggal 10 Muharram) dengan satu hari sebelum atau sesudahnya.
4. Puasa hari-hari bidh (putih, yakni hari-hari di saat terjadi bulan purnama-ed), yaitu hari ke-13, 14 dan 15 pada setiap bulan Hijriyyah.
5. Puasa hari Senin dan Kamis.
6. Memperbanyak puasa pada bulan Sya'ban dan Muharram.
7. Puasa Nabi Dawud (sehari puasa, sehari tidak puasa).
8. Puasa sepuluh hari di bulan Dzulhijjah.
9. Puasa bagi orang yang belum mampu menikah.

Ketiga: Puasa Makruh
Puasa makruh adalah puasa yang oleh nash-nash syar'i dilarang untuk dikerjakan, tetapi larangan tersebut tidak bersifat keras, karena tidak sampai pada tingkat pengharaman. Di antara hari-hari yang dimakruhkan untuk puasa adalah:

1. Puasa hari Arafah bagi orang yang menunaikan ibadah haji.
2. Puasa hari Jum'at saja.
3. Puasa hari Sabtu saja.
4. Puasa hari terakhir dari bulan Sya'ban, kecuali jika bertepatan dengan puasa yang telah biasa dilakukan, seperti puasa hari Senin dan Kamis.
5. Puasa ad-Dahr. Ini diartikan bahwa harus berbuka pada hari-hari diharamkannya puasa, jika tidak berbuka pada hari-hari tersebut, maka diharamkan puasa ad-Dahr.

Keempat: Puasa yang Diharamkan
Puasa yang diharamkan adalah puasa yang oleh nash-nash syar'i dilarang secara mutlak untuk dikerjakan, yaitu:

1. Puasa dua hari raya; Idul Fithri dan Idul Adh-ha.
2. Puasa pada hari-hari Tasyriq, yaitu tanggal 11, 12 dan 13 dari bulan Dzul Hijjah.
3. Puasa pada saat haidh dan nifas bagi wanita.
4. Diharamkan bagi wanita melaksanakan puasa tathawwu' (sunnah) jika suaminya melarang untuk mengerjakan puasa tersebut.
5. Puasanya orang sakit yang dapat membahayakan dirinya dan bahkan bisa mengakibatkan kematiannya. [1]

Pembahasan 2
PUASA SUNNAH [2] DAN PENGARUHNYA DALAM TAQARRUB (PENDEKATAN DIRI) SEORANG HAMBA KEPADA RABB-NYA

Setiap kewajiban memiliki satu nafilah (sunnah) yang mempertahankan keberadaannya serta menyempurnakan kekurangannya. Shalat lima waktu misalnya, memiliki shalat-shalat sunnah, baik sebelum maupun sesudahnya. Demikian juga dengan zakat, yang memiliki shadaqah sunnah. Haji dan umrah merupakan hal yang wajib dikerjakan sekali seumur hidup, sedangkan selebihnya adalah sunnah. Puasa wajib dikerjakan pada bulan Ramadhan, sedangkan puasa sunnah banyak sekali, di antaranya puasa sunnah yang tidak pasti, seperti puasa bagi orang yang tidak mampu menikah. Puasa sunnah yang ditentukan, misalnya puasa enam hari di bulan Syawwal, karena barangsiapa mengerjakan puasa ini setelah Ramadhan, maka seakan-akan dia telah berpuasa sepanjang tahun.

Hal tersebut didasarkan pada hadits yang diriwayatkan oleh Abu Ayyub al-Anshari Radhiyallahu 'anhu, bahwa Rasulullah Shallallahu 'alaihi wa sallam bersabda:

"Barangsiapa berpuasa Ramadhan, kemudian diikuti dengan puasa enam hari di bulan Syawwal, maka ia seperti puasa ad-Dahr." [3]

Di antara pengaruh puasa sunnah adalah:
1. Puasa sunnah dapat digunakan oleh seorang hamba untuk mendekatkan diri kepada Rabb-nya, karena membiasakan diri berpuasa setelah Ramadhan merupakan tanda diterimanya amal perbuatan, insya Allah. Hal ini karena Allah Jalla wa Ala jika menerima amal seorang muslim, maka Dia akan memberikan petunjuk kepadanya untuk mengerjakan amal shalih setelahnya.

2. Puasa Ramadhan yang dikerjakan dengan penuh keimanan dan mengharapkan pahala, akan mengharuskan pemberian ampunan atas dosa-dosa sebelumnya. Orang-orang yang berpuasa akan mendapatkan pahala pada hari Idul Fithri, karena hal itu merupakan hari pemberian pahala. Puasa setelah Ramadhan merupakan bentuk rasa syukur terhadap nikmat ini bagi hubungan seorang muslim dengan Rabb-nya.

3. Puasa sunnah merupakan janji seorang muslim kepada Rabb-nya, bahwa musim ketaatan itu akan terus berlangsung dan bahwasanya kehidupan ini secara keseluruhan adalah ibadah. Dengan demikian, puasa itu tidak berakhir dengan berakhirnya bulan Ramadhan, tetapi puasa itu terus disyari'atkan sepanjang tahun. Mahabenar Allah Yang Mahaagung ketika berfirman:

"Katakanlah, Sesungguhnya shalatku, sembelihanku, hidupku dan matiku hanyalah untuk Allah ...." [Al-An'aam: 162]

4. Puasa sunnah menjadi sebab timbulnya kecintaan Allah Subhanahu wa Ta'ala kepada hamba-Nya serta pengabulan do'anya, penghapusan kesalahan-kesalahannya, pelipatgandaan kebaikan-kebaikannya, peninggian derajatnya, serta keberuntungannya mendapatkan Surga kenikmatan. [4]

[Disalin dari buku Meraih Puasa Sempurna, Diterjemahkan dari kitab Ash-Shiyaam, Ahkaam wa Aa-daab, karya Dr. Abdullah bin Muhammad bin Ahmad ath-Thayyar, Penerjemah Abdul Ghoffar EM, Penerbit Pustaka Ibnu Katsir]
http://almanhaj.or.id/content/2523/slash/0
;mohon maaf jika ada penulisan yang keliru atau salah;