by mr dedi turmudi MATESOL

                                                                          Chapter I

Introduction to Writing 4

Dedi  Turmudi, S.Pd., MA TESOL

 

           

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1. Academic Writing and Non Academic Writing

            In this chapter the learners are directed to learn academic and non academic writing or what is so called creative writing. Academic writing covers: narrative essay, descriptive, expository, argumentative, cause and effect, comparison and contrast, and while non academic writing covers; personal narrative, recount, spoof, anecdote, news item etc. For further explanation it is worth reading the upcoming explanation.

1.      Definition

            A broad definition of academic writing is any writing done to fulfill a requirement of a college or university. Besides, academic writing is also used for publications that are read by teachers and researchers or presented at conferences. Thus, a very broad definition of academic writing could include any writing assignment given in an academic setting.For that, the following examples are considered to be the form of academic writing. Some are self-explanatory and some have a brief explanation. They are books and book reports, translations, essays, research paper or research article, conference paper, dissertation and thesis, abstract, explication - This is a work which explains part of a particular work.

2. Academic Writing Structure

            Academic writing has specific structures. They are introduction,  body, and  conclusion.   In introduction you have to put hook to attract the readers. Then you have to put thesis statement at the end of the introductory paragraph. This is also called objective in other context. It has a function that is to control development of the body paragraph(s). You can also do this by starting with several questions or a quote from a famous work or person to pique the reader’s interest.   Body (ies) paragraph is the main part of the work and the paragraphs must be clearly written and be arranged in a logical order, like chronologically or in order of importance or based on the genre. Each initial sentence links the preceding paragraph and the whole section flows smoothly. The body consists of topic sentence, supporting sentences, and concluding sentence. Body paragraph can be more than one paragraph. It depends on how many aspects there are in the thesis statement. In line with this , the most important thing is that each paragraph has to be well united and coherence. In the conclusion or is called concluding paragraph, you re-emphasize the thesis and summarize all the main points. The conclusion consists of one paragraph which shows the final conclusion to the reader. All in all, the three components of academic writing are introductory, body and concluding paragraph.

(Source: retrieved on Monday September 26, 2011 from   http://www.yourdictionary.com/reference/word-definitions/definition-of-academic-writing.html)

3. Coherence and Unity

The word coherence in this context is solid. In latin word it is cohere means “ hold together” ( Oshima and Hogue, 2006). All of the sentences in one paragraph have to be hold together with appropriate transitions. Coherence is one of the two criteria of good paragraph. Another good criteria of the paragraph is unity. Unity means that a paragraph discusses one and only one main idea from the beginning to end ( Oshima and Hogue. at. al p. 18). One main idea can be developed into specific topic what is called topic sentence. In the topic sentence there are two parts: a topic and a controlling idea. Supposed you have a main idea that is education, you can make it into a good education than make “ good education’ into  topic sentence: a good education has three characteristics. A good education is a topic and three characteristics is controlling idea. All in all, Coherence and unity mean that a paragraph has one main idea and all the supporting sentences and detail are hold together with appropriate transitions.    

4. Non Academic writing or creative writing

            Creative writing is considered to be any writing, fiction, poetry, or non-fiction, that goes outside the bounds of normal professional, journalistic, academic, and technical forms of literature. Works which fall into this category include novels, epics, short stories, and poems. Writing for the screen and stage, screenwriting and playwriting respectively, typically have their own programs of study, but fit under the creative writing category as well.( Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_writing)

            Elements of Creative Writing has several elements to bear in mind: They are Character, Point of View, Plot, Setting, Dialogue (fiction), Style (fiction), Theme and Motif. It has also form such as Autobiography/Memoir, Collaborative writing, Creative non-fiction (Personal & Journalistic Essays), Epic, Flash fiction, Novel, Novella, Playwriting/Dramatic writing, Poetry, Screenwriting, Short story, Songwriting, Bibliography, Stream of consciousness (narrative mode). All of these can also be more specific in forms like enecdote, spoof, recount, etc. (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_writing) Another source of creative writing says that the definition of creative writing is writing that expresses ideas and thoughts in an imaginative way. The writer gets to gets to express feelings and emotions instead of just presenting the facts.  

(Source:http://www.yourdictionary.com/reference/word-definitions/definition-of-creative-writing.html

2. Field of Studies versus Genres

            It might be confusing when we are talking about field of studies and genres. However, it can be clarified as the following propositions. Field of studies is the content with which you develop your essay writing. Whereas, genres is the way how the content is presented in form of writing. In detail genres can be defined as follow: a style, especially in the arts, that involves a set of particular characteristics (Cambridge Advanced Learner Dictionary). It is worth presenting some examples. Suppose you have an interest in writing about education entitled: “National Examination” and you are presenting (written form) in argumentative. Whereby we can crack both sentences and say that “Education”  is a field of study while “argumentative”  is a genre. Thus, every field of study you are interested in has to be presented in a particular genre.

3. Types Genres

            The following genres are background knowledge or some input for you before we are moving further on how to write your field of study in an essay writing. Further, about what essay writing is and how it is developed as well as what criterion an essay has to be will be explained in chapter II.  

4. Writing Four

            The following is  a little description of what is to be done in writing 4

In writing 2 you have the following work to do

 

In writing 3 you have the following description

 

In writing 4 you have the following work to do

 

 

5. General Description of Genres

1. Narrative Text

1. Definition of Narrative

            Narrative is a text focusing some specific participants that have several structural features making different from other genres. Narrative has social function that is to tell stories either in present which is called present narrative, past events which called past narrative and future which is called future  narrative,  to entertain the readers (Smalley, and Ruetten, 1984). Narrative is used most often in: Fables, Myths and Legends, Detective Stories, Adventure Stories. Thrillers, Period Dramas.  

2. Generic Structure of Narrative

            A narrative text consists of the following structures:

1. Orientation: Introducing the participants and informing the time and the place. It also introduce some characters involved in this genre.

2. Complication: Describing the rising crises which the participants have to do with or among participants relationship in a process of social interaction.

3. Resolution: Showing the way of participant to solve the crises, better or worse. The end can be open ended or close ended. Open ended is a conclusion that depends on the perception of the readers. Whereas, close ended is an end of a story in which the conclusion is clearly stated.

4. Coda which summarizes the point of the story.

3. Language Features of Narrative

1. Using processes verbs : tell, says, narrates,etc.
2. Using temporal conjunction : Chronological Order
3. Using Simple Past Tense, Present Tense, and Future Tense, Present Perfect, Present Continuous, and Past Continuous. 

2. Descriptive

1. Definition of Descriptive

            Many definition about descriptive can be found in separated books one of which is that of being defined by Smalley and Ruetten (1985): an essay that explains something from where the objects being  described are located which is called spatial organization. In short, in descriptive essay you must make the location of the objects being described very clear (p. 58). In accordance with this definition, a descriptive essay can be scaled based on the three senses: visual, auditory and smell or called mood.

The Following might help you how a descriptive essay is developed. Look at the table in the box

			Analogy    Is like                        : A poplar  bear is like other bears in shape Resembles   : A polar bear resembles other bears in shape Location In                             : Most Canada’s manufacturing is located in Ontario and Quebec Above                         : The ceiling is above us Below                         : Most of Ontario is below Hudson Bay Beside                        : Quebec is located beside Ontario Near                           : Many companies are located near Toronto North, South, East, West, North East, South East, East west, South west,.

 

    

Properties Size                           : Polar bears are big in size Color                          : Polar  bears are usually white in color Shape                         : Polar bears have a special shape Purpose      : The purpose of the polar bear fur is to keep it warm. Measurement Length                       :  The length of a polar bear’s claws is 20 cm Width                        :  The width of polar bear’s head in about 50 cm. Mass/ Weight               :  Polar bears weigh up to 650 kg. Speed                         : Polar bears can swim at speed of 40 km per hour

 

2. Generic Structure

            There is no specific elaboration on what has to be included in a descriptive, however; this means that it depends on what types of writing: essay or essay or even complex essay. If you are to write an essay paragraph, it has to have three main components in the structure as described below:

1. Introduction :Thesis statement
2. Body Paragraph : Topic sentence ,Supporting sentences and concluding sentence
3. Concluding paragraph 
4. Logical development

3. Language Feature

1. Using linking verb or verb of senses such as  look, smell, taste, see, seem
2. Using three parameter of senses: visual, auditory, and smell
3. Using spatial order in which preposition precedes the verb and the subjects.
4. Using multiple tenses based on the time: past, present and future.

            Descriptive essay is a representation the absent object being described. If you do know how your father looked like because he passed away before you were born., you can read his description covering: size, color, shape, sound, and so on. 

4. Expository

A.    Definition  Expository

            An essay that explains  or analyzes a topic is an expository  essay ( Smalley and Ruetten. at al., p100). It includes: information, explanation, facts, and illustrations. Expository essay can be divided into several model of writings: such as process paragraph, and procedure paragraph. However, the details about these two divisions will be explained in a separated chapter not to mentioned the example.   

B.      Generic Structure

            As for the descriptive essay, the expository essay has similarities to that of descriptive in that the tenses depend on the time of description. Hence, you may use present o past tense or even future. Seen from the essay context it has to have three components of essay:

1. Introduction
2. Body:  example, detail, charts
3. Conclusion

C.    Language Feature

1. Using process verbs: begin, start, continue, become, remain, develop, end finish, culminate.
2. Using indefinite transitions
3. Using Question word mark, such as how, and.
4. Using charts, graphics, and other visual aids.
5. Using present tenses either verbal or nominal.

4. Argumentative

A.    Definition

            An essay that explains and convinces the readers by presenting both pros and cons is called argumentative essay. It is worth making an analogy of what argumentative looks like. The easiest one is that argumentative is like a badminton players, or tennis table players, or even, lawn tennis. Accordingly, the topic has to be controversial for public. In this model, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, and cause and effect reasoning, and argument by authority are inherence.

   

B.     Generic Structure

            The generic structure of this model can possible like this:

1. It has an introduction
2. It has body : topic sentence ,  supporting sentences for pros and supporting sentences for cons. Further both of these are called arguments.
3. It has to use deductive or inductive reasoning, cause and effect, and argument by authority.

C.    Language Feature

1. Using multiple tenses : present, past, future
2. Using verbs: believe, objects, argue,
3. Using modal:  can, will, would, should, etc
4. Using adverb: due to, because, etc.
5. Using question word : why, how, what, etc.

5. Recount  

A.    Definition

            Recount is a type of written texts ( like essay or more than one paragraph) which tells a record of events in the past. The root word comes from “re” means “ again” and “count” means “report”. Both small part of words become recount that means to retell. According to Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, it is defined as : to describe how something happened: to tell a story, e.g.  he recounted his adventure since he had left home. Accordingly, the word recount can be a noun (count, recount), a verb ( count, recount) and adjectives ( countable, uncountable, countless).

            Recount can easily be found in any kind of written text such as Newspaper articles – preceding of a trial, description of a soccer match, events before and after the occurrence of natural disasters, Police Reports, Biographies, Autobiographies, Diary, Entries, Historical Records.

B.     Generic Structure

Recount has a generic structure:

           

1. It has an orientation which gives the background to the events that took place.
2. It has a series of events told in the past tense.
3. It has re-orientation which a repeated similar meaning or a lesson learned from the story. It could end with a re-orientation which refers the reader back to the orientation
4. Summarizing comments which is an expression or a lesson learned on what the readers should learn from the story. 

C.    Language Feature

1. The verb is Past Tense or similar group of past tense such as past perfect Tense
2. It has time markers or transitions e.g. yesterday, soon, functions as a sequent of events

D.  Different between Recount  and Narrative

            It might be confusing to differ between recount and narrative. However, this explanation may help you to understand the propositions. Something which happened in the past is the main resources to compose both recount and narrative text. In writer's point of view, the thing is an experience. It can be what the writer has done, heard, read, and felt .Thus, composing recount and narrative mean to retell the experiences of the past event to be a present event.

            However, you can distinct between recount and narrative can be differentiated from the generic structure. Recount text presents the past experiences in order of time or place. In simple way, recount describes series of events in detail. It does not expose the struggle on how to make them happen. The event happened smoothly. On the other hand, narrative introduces crises and how to solve them. Narrative text always appears as a hard portrait of participant's past experience. It reveals the conflict among the participants.   The conflict is the most important element in a narrative text. Narrative without conflicts is not narrative any more.

6. Spoof

1. Definition

            Definition and Social Function of Spoof
According to Cambridge Advanced Dictionary, the word spoof means: an amusing and ridicules piece of writing, music, theatre and so on. However, scholar defines Spoof as a text which tells factual story, happened in the past time with unpredictable and funny ending. Its social function is to entertain and share the story.( http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2007/12/what-is-spoof_31.html)

2. Generic Structure

Generic Structure of Spoof
1. Orientation : introducing person, place, action.
2. Events : sequencing the event
3. Twist (lucu)

3. Language Feature

Language Feature of Spoof
1. Focusing on people, animals or certain things
2. Using action verb; ate, ran, etc
3. Using adverb of time and place
4. Told in chronological order

7. Anecdote

A.    Definition

Definition and Social Function of Anecdote
Anecdote is a text which retells funny and unusual incidents in fact or imagination. Its purpose is to entertain the readers.

B.     Generic Structure of Anecdote
1. Abstract
2. Orientation
3. Crisis
4. Incident.

C.     Language Feature

1. Using exclamation words; it's awful!, it's wonderful!, etc
2. Using imperative; listen to this
3. Using rhetoric question; do you know what?
4. Using action verb; go, write, etc
5. Using conjunction of time; then, afterward
6. Using simple past tense

8. Report Text

A. Definition

      Report is a text which presents information about something, as it is. It is as a result of systematic observation and analysis. Interpretation of the reporter is mostly avoided.

B. Generic Structure

1. General classification: Stating classification of general aspect of thing; animal, public place, plant, etc which will be discussed in general
2. Description: Describing the thing which will be discussed in detail; part per part , customs or deed for living creature and usage for materials

C. Language Feature of Report

1.  Introducing group or general aspect
2.  Using conditional logical connection; when, so, etc
3.  Using simple present tense

9. News Item Text

A. Definition

            News item is a text which informs readers about events of the day. The events are considered newsworthy or important.

B. Generic Structure

1. Main event
2. Elaboration (background, participant, time, place)
3. Resource of information

C. Language Feature of News Item

1. Focusing on circumstances
2. Using material process

10. Cause and Effect

A.    Definition

            Cause and Effect Essay is a writing piece in which the writer analyzes—in a certain field of study—two or more things one which as a cause and other (s) as effect. Cause and Effect essay is more favorably in academic writing rather than in a creative writing. Often does a person need to analyze things clearly and determine which one is a cause and which one is an effect in order that he or she avoids a mistake in assembling transitions.  

2. Generic Structure

            The structure of cause and effect essay has: thesis statement, topic sentence which the main concern—either focuses on causes or on effects--, supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence, and concluding paragraph

3. Language Feature

            Jordan (1999) summarizes that cause and effect essay has language features more or less like in the following summary.

1. Tenses is flexible on when the matter happened: can be present, past, or future.
2. The structure of sentences can be:

a.       X  causes   Y  ( with active verb)

b.      X is caused by Y ( with passive verb)

3. The sentences with which you explain the matters can be active voice or passive voice.
4. The transitions covers: causes, result, due to, because, because of, as a result, consequently, etc.
5. The verb can be use in topic statement : cause, effect, result, etc.
6. The topic can be begun with:

a.       There are some causes why…

b.      There are some effects of …

c.       Scientist researched that there are …

7. Use third person points of views.

  

11. Opinion

1. Definition

            Opinion essay is an essay in which a writer expresses his personal arguments to persuade readers about a hot topic in the point of view of public perceptions. In this model, the writer argues or persuades the readers with whatever logical propositions he or she has avoiding to discuss his or her opponents voice. Opinion essay is like a squash player who hits ball against wall without any counterpart.

1. Generic Structure

            Opinion essay, in general, has also similar characteristic in that the tenses depends on when the matter happens, however; simple present tense and present perfect are frequently used in the sentences. To sum up, opinion essay has also (1)thesis statement (2)  topic sentence in which the writer believes to be the core explanation to develop,(2) supporting sentences in which the writers support  factual arguments to controlling idea, and (3) concluding sentence in which the writer ends the reader with his or her final conclusion or statement, and concluding paragraph.    

 

2. Language Feature

Opinion essay can use:

1. Verbs : believe, think, propose, hypothesize,
2. Use first person point of view
3. Use other arguments which are inline with his or her propositions.
4. Use modal auxiliary
5. Use transitions, first, second, third, last, finally.  
6. The objects can be human, animals, nature or even God. The tone is persuasion or convincing readers to agree with his or her propositions. 

12. Comparison and Contrast

1. Definition

            Comparison and Contrast Essay is a writing piece in which the writer compares ( similarities of both compared things) and contrast ( differentiates on both compared things). This genre tends to be academic writing  and use observation and analyses as prerequisites prior to writing process.  

2. Generic Structure

            Comparison and contrast has generic structure in paragraph:

1. Introductory : thesis
2. Body Paragraph : Topic Sentence : mention both similarities and differences
3. Supporting sentences:
4. Concluding sentence : a logical conclusion from supporting sentences. It is another sentence of topic sentence.
5. Concluding paragraph

3. Language Feature

            Comparison and contrast  has characteristics:

1. It focuses on third person points of view or factual data
2. The object can be people, things or nature- can be real or unreal thing.
3. The tenses depends what the real condition of the compared things.
4. It has to have detail things or aspects within the compared things, people, or natures.
5. It exposes factual non opinion.
6. It uses any kind of verb: action verb, linking verb.
7. The goal is to give a clear picture about compared things for people before taking decision. 

13. Hortatory Exposition Text

A.    Definition  

          Hortatory exposition is a text which represents the attempt of the writer to have the addressee do something or act in certain way. This matter is generally focused in the public interest such: the importance of wearing seatbelt, the importance of wearing helmet, the importance of using condom for a married couples, and so forth.

B.     Generic Structure  

1. Thesis : Introductory.

Introductory covers general statement or hook to attract the readers, and thesis statement to control your writing coverage and development.  
2. Arguments : Body

Body paragraph consists of topic sentence, supporting sentences and detail, and concluding sentence. Argument is presented in certain way so that it meets with the criteria of good paragraph.   
3. Recommendation : Concluding Paragraph.

Concluding paragraph consists of conclusion  and summary or summary and  conclusion. The matter how you conclude has to include recommendation for readers to follow.

C.     Language Feature  

1. Focusing on the writer points of view
2. Using abstract noun; policy, advantage, etc
3. Using action verb
4. Using thinking  / mental verb
5. Using modal adverb; certainly, surely, etc
6. Using temporal connective; firstly, secondly, etc
7. Using evaluative words; important, valuable, trustworthy, etc
8. Using passive voice
9. Using simple present tense

14. Analytical Exposition

A.    Definition  

          Exposition is a text that elaborates the writer‘s idea about the phenomenon surrounding. Its social function is to persuade the reader that the idea is important matter to concern.

B.     Generic Structure

1. Thesis: Introducing the topic and indicating the writer’s position
2. Arguments: Explaining the arguments to support the writer’s position
3. Reiteration: Restating the writer’s position

C.     Language Features  

1.       Using relational process

2.       Using internal conjunction

3.       Using causal conjunction

4.       Using Simple Present Tense

15. Procedure Text

A.    Definition of Procedure

Procedure is a text that shows a process in order. Its social function is to describe how something is completely done through a sequence of series

B.     Generic Structure of Procedure

1. Goal: showing the purpose

2. Material: Telling the needed materials

3. Step 1-end: Describing the steps to achieve the purpose.

C.     Language Feature of Procedure

1.    Using temporal conjunction

2.    Using action verb

3.    Using imperative sentence

4.    Using Simple Present Tense

16. Discussion

A.    Definition of Discussion

            Discussion is a text which present a problematic discourse. This problem will be discussed from different viewpoints. Discussion is commonly found in philosophical, historic, and social text. However, the writer is not authorized to take stance since he or he only presents the flows of discussion so that readers can draw a conclusion or even get the points to follow. If you are trapped in this case and you take position in one side, then your writing is considered to be argumentative. 

B.     Generic Structure of Discussion

1.      Statement of issue; stating the issue which is to discussed

2.      List of supporting points; presenting the point in supporting the presented issue.

3.      List of contrastive point; presenting other points which disagree to the supporting point.

4.      Recommendation; stating the writer' recommendation of the discourse

C.     Language Feature of Discussion

1.      Introducing category or generic participant

2.      Using thinking verb; feel, hope, believe, etc.

3.      Using additive, contrastive, and causal connection; similarly, on the hand, however, etc

4.      Using modalities; must, should, could, may, etc

5.      Using adverbial of manner; deliberately, hopefully, etc

Bagan 2

In this chapter you have learned many genres as your basic input or background knowledge before you are moving further on how to develop your essay writing skills. Hence, in the upcoming chapter you are going to learn and study how each of genres developed.

	Bagan 1		Bagan  3

	Bagan  4		Bagan  5		Bagan  6
	Bagan  7
			Bagan  8
					Bagan  9

 

Bibliography

1. Oshima, Alice and Hogue, Ann( 2006) Writing Academic English (4^th Edition). New York: Pearson Education, Inc.
2. Oshima, Alice and Hogue, Ann( 2006) Introduction to Academic English (3 rd Edition) : Level 3.  New York: Pearson Education, Inc.
3. Jordan, RR ( 2002) Academic Writing Course( 3 rd Edition). Spain: Longman 
4. Pasquarella, Aris.(2003). The Writer’s Thesaurus: Level 2. Merrymack,NH. Option Publishing. Inc.
5. Wison, George E., Burks, Julia M.(1980). Let’s write English. New York, New York. Litton Educational Publishing International.
6. Smalley, Regina L.,Ruetten Mary K,.(xxxx).Refining Composition Skils: Rhetoric and Grammar for ESL Students—second edition.New York: Macmilan Publishing Company.
7. PPB – UI ( 2006) Diktat Akademik Training II. Jakarta: UI Copy Center
8. http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/563/03/
9. http://www.yourdictionary.com/reference/word-definitions/definition-of-academic-writing.html)
10. http://www.yourdictionary.com/reference/word-definitions/definition-of-creative-writing.html